Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development Report
Summary
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released a landmark report titled “Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development”, drawing global attention to one of the world’s most extracted yet most under-regulated natural resources.
The report finds that sand is the most extracted solid material on Earth — second only to water in global consumption. Driven by rapid urbanisation, infrastructure booms, climate-adaptation construction, and silicon demand from the technology sector, global sand consumption surged from 9.6 billion tonnes in 1970 to 50 billion tonnes annually by 2020 — an average annual growth of 3.2%. The global sand market was valued at $569.4 billion in 2024.
UNEP warns that unregulated sand extraction is driving riverine degradation, biodiversity loss, groundwater depletion, coastal erosion, and threatening the livelihoods of nearly 2.3 billion people dependent on small-scale fisheries.
Background & Concept
What is the Report?
“Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development” is a UNEP assessment that maps the global state of sand extraction, its environmental and social consequences, and the governance gaps in regulating it. It builds on UNEP’s earlier 2019 and 2022 sand reports and offers a 10-Point Action Plan for sustainable global sand governance.
About UNEP:
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), established in 1972 following the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, is the leading global authority on environmental matters. Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, UNEP works on climate change, ecosystems, chemicals, pollution, and resource efficiency. It hosts secretariats of major conventions like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), CITES, and the Minamata Convention on Mercury.
What is “Sand” in this Context?
In the report, “sand” refers to aggregates — sand, gravel, and crushed stone used in:
- Construction & infrastructure (concrete, asphalt, mortar, glass) — over 85% of demand.
- Land reclamation (artificial islands, ports, urban expansion).
- Industrial uses — silicon for semiconductors, solar panels, fibre optics, water filtration.
- Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) for oil and gas.
Why is Sand Demand Surging?
| Driver | Example |
|---|---|
| Rapid urbanisation (45%+ live in cities; projected 68% by 2050) | Land reclamation in Manila Bay, Maldives |
| Infrastructure development | India’s PMAY, highway expansion, bullet train projects |
| Population growth (~8.2 billion in 2025) | Mass housing in developing nations |
| Climate adaptation (sea walls, raised islands) | Gulhifalhu (Maldives) — 24.5 million cubic metres dredged |
| Technology demand | Silicon for semiconductors, solar panels, data centres |
Key Findings of the Report
- Most Extracted Solid Material: Sand is the most extracted solid material globally, second only to water in total consumption.
- Demand Explosion: Consumption rose from 9.6 billion tonnes (1970) to 50 billion tonnes annually (2020), growing at ~3.2% per year.
- Urban Expansion: Average built-up area per person rose from 43 sq m (1975) to 63 sq m (2025) — directly correlating with sand demand.
- Economic Scale: Global sand market valued at $569.4 billion in 2024.
- Livelihood Dependence: Around 2.3 billion people depend on small-scale fisheries supported by healthy sandy and riverine ecosystems.
- Marine Dredging Hotspots: Massive marine sand dredging in Southeast Asia, the Gulf, and the Maldives is altering coastlines and seabeds.
- Governance Vacuum: Unlike water, oil, or forests, sand lacks a dedicated international governance framework.
Major Ecological & Social Impacts
- Riverine Degradation: Unsustainable mining alters river morphology, causes bank erosion, and damages aquatic habitats.
- Groundwater Depletion: Removal of riverbed sand reduces aquifer recharge, lowering water tables.
- Coastal Erosion & Saline Intrusion: Beach and marine sand extraction accelerate coastal erosion and seawater ingress into freshwater zones.
- Biodiversity Loss: Destroys habitats of riverine and marine species (gharials, turtles, river dolphins, benthic organisms).
- Health Hazards: Workers face silicosis, respiratory diseases, and increased exposure to malaria from stagnant mining pits.
- Conflict & Illegal “Sand Mafias”: Lucrative trade has spawned illegal mining, organised crime, and violent conflicts in India, Africa, and Latin America.
- Climate Feedback: Cement (which uses sand) accounts for ~8% of global CO₂ emissions, linking sand demand directly to climate change.
Initiatives for Sustainable Sand Management
| Level | Initiative |
|---|---|
| Global | UNEP 10-Point Action Plan; Marine Sand Watch (AIS-based vessel monitoring of dredging activity worldwide) |
| India | Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines (2016); Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines (2020); NGT bans on mining without Environmental Clearance (EC) |
UNEP’s 10-Point Action Plan (Key Pillars):
- Recognise sand as a strategic resource.
- Establish international governance and standards.
- Develop alternatives and substitutes (recycled aggregates, crushed concrete).
- Mainstream circular economy principles.
- Map and monitor sand resources using remote sensing & AI.
- Strengthen supply-chain transparency.
- Reduce extraction from rivers and coasts; prioritise manufactured sand.
- Promote community-led, participatory governance.
- Address occupational health and labour rights.
- Integrate sand into climate and biodiversity frameworks.
India’s Context (Sand Story)
India is among the largest consumers of sand globally, driven by infrastructure programmes like PMAY (Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana), Bharatmala, Sagarmala, and Smart Cities Mission.
Key Indian initiatives:
- Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016 – issued by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
- Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining, 2020 – emphasising District Survey Reports (DSRs), drone-based monitoring, and replenishment study.
- Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2006 – mandates EC for sand mining (including for plots <5 hectares after the 2012 Deepak Kumar v. State of Haryana SC ruling).
- NGT (National Green Tribunal) – has repeatedly banned illegal/unregulated mining and ordered scientific replenishment studies.
- MSand (Manufactured Sand) – increasingly promoted as a substitute for river sand.
Despite a robust framework, enforcement remains weak, with rampant illegal mining in states like Bihar, UP, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan, and frequent attacks on whistleblowers and officials.
Keywords & Definitions
▸ Aggregates: Coarse particulate materials — sand, gravel, crushed stone — used in construction, concrete, asphalt, and land reclamation.
▸ UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme): UN agency established in 1972, headquartered in Nairobi, leading global environmental action.
▸ Marine Sand Watch: A UNEP platform using AIS (Automatic Identification System) to track marine sand dredging vessels globally.
▸ Land Reclamation: Creation of new land from oceans, riverbeds, or lakes — major sand-demand driver in Singapore, Maldives, UAE, China.
▸ Manufactured Sand (M-Sand): Crushed rock sand produced as a sustainable substitute for river sand in construction.
▸ Desert Sand: Wind-eroded sand with smooth, rounded grains — unsuitable for concrete because it doesn’t bind well.
▸ Silicosis: A lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust — common among sand mining and quarry workers.
▸ Sand Mafia: Organised criminal networks engaged in illegal sand mining, often involving violence and political nexus.
▸ Environmental Clearance (EC): Mandatory approval under the EIA Notification 2006 for projects (including sand mining) with environmental impact.
▸ District Survey Report (DSR): A district-level baseline study under India’s 2016/2020 sand guidelines, mandatory before granting mining leases.
▸ Deepak Kumar v. State of Haryana (2012): Landmark Supreme Court judgment that made EC mandatory for sand mining even on plots less than 5 hectares.
▸ National Green Tribunal (NGT): A statutory body established under the NGT Act, 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of environmental cases.
▸ Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016: Issued by MoEFCC, providing a framework for scientific, sustainable extraction of riverbed materials.
▸ EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment): A process under the EIA Notification 2006 to assess environmental consequences of proposed projects.
▸ Circular Economy: An economic model based on reuse, recycling, and regeneration — relevant for recycling C&D waste as alternative aggregate.
▸ Construction & Demolition (C&D) Waste: Solid waste from construction/demolition activities; can be recycled into aggregates.
▸ Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking): Oil/gas extraction technique using high-pressure injection of water, chemicals, and sand into rock formations.
▸ Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022): Adopted at CBD COP15; key targets include 30×30 (conserving 30% of land and seas by 2030).
▸ Coastal Erosion: Loss of land along coastlines due to wave action, currents, sea-level rise, and human extraction.
▸ Aquifer: An underground layer of water-bearing rock from which groundwater can be extracted.
Question Section (MCQs)
Q1. The report “Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development” has been released by:
(a) UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) (b) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (c) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (d) International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Q2. Consider the following statements regarding sand consumption as per the UNEP report:
- Sand is the most extracted solid material on Earth.
- Globally, sand is second only to water in terms of consumption.
- Global sand consumption rose from 9.6 billion tonnes in 1970 to 50 billion tonnes annually by 2020.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Q3. Which of the following is/are major drivers of rising global sand demand?
- Rapid urbanisation
- Infrastructure development
- Demand for silicon in semiconductors and solar panels
- Climate-adaptation construction
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Q4. Desert sand is generally considered unsuitable for construction because:
(a) It contains too much salt (b) Its rounded grains do not bind well in concrete (c) It is radioactive (d) It is reserved for solar panel manufacturing
Q5. The Marine Sand Watch, mentioned in the report, is best described as:
(a) A treaty banning marine sand mining (b) A UNEP platform that tracks marine sand dredging vessels using AIS data (c) An Indian initiative for coastal protection (d) A naval surveillance programme
Q6. The Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines in India were first issued in which year?
(a) 2006 (b) 2012 (c) 2016 (d) 2020
Q7. Consider the following statements about the National Green Tribunal (NGT):
- It was established under the NGT Act, 2010.
- It has frequently banned sand mining without Environmental Clearance.
- Its decisions are final and cannot be appealed in any court.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Q8. The landmark Supreme Court judgment that made Environmental Clearance mandatory for sand mining even on plots less than 5 hectares was:
(a) MC Mehta v. Union of India (b) Deepak Kumar v. State of Haryana (2012) (c) Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (d) TN Godavarman v. Union of India
Q9. Which of the following occupational health hazards is most commonly associated with sand mining workers?
(a) Asbestosis (b) Silicosis (c) Black lung disease (d) Mesothelioma
Q10. Match the following:
| Initiative | Body / Country |
|---|---|
| A. Marine Sand Watch | 1. India |
| B. Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines | 2. UNEP |
| C. Gulhifalhu reclamation project | 3. MoEFCC, India |
| D. NGT bans on illegal mining | 4. Maldives |
Select the correct answer:
(a) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1 (b) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 (c) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3 (d) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
Answer Key with Explanations
▸ Q1 → (b) The report was released by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya — the leading global authority on environmental issues.
▸ Q2 → (d) 1, 2 and 3 All three statements are correct. Sand is the most extracted solid material, second only to water in consumption, and demand has surged from 9.6 to 50 billion tonnes between 1970 and 2020.
▸ Q3 → (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 All four — urbanisation, infrastructure development, technology (silicon for semiconductors, solar panels, data centres), and climate adaptation — are highlighted by UNEP as major demand drivers.
▸ Q4 → (b) Desert sand grains are smooth and rounded due to wind erosion, making them unfit for binding in concrete. River and marine sand have angular grains that bind well — which is why desert-rich nations like the UAE still import sand.
▸ Q5 → (b) Marine Sand Watch is a UNEP-led monitoring platform that uses Automatic Identification System (AIS) data to track sand-dredging vessels globally, improving transparency in marine extraction.
▸ Q6 → (c) 2016 India’s Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines were first issued in 2016 by the MoEFCC, followed by the Enforcement & Monitoring Guidelines, 2020.
▸ Q7 → (a) 1 and 2 only Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong — NGT decisions can be appealed in the Supreme Court within 90 days under Section 22 of the NGT Act, 2010.
▸ Q8 → (b) In Deepak Kumar v. State of Haryana (2012), the Supreme Court ruled that Environmental Clearance is mandatory for sand mining even on plots less than 5 hectares — closing a major regulatory loophole.
▸ Q9 → (b) Silicosis Silicosis, caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust, is the most common occupational disease among sand mining and quarry workers. The report also notes elevated malaria risk from stagnant water in abandoned mining pits.
▸ Q10 → (a) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1 Marine Sand Watch — UNEP; Sustainable Sand Mining Guidelines — MoEFCC, India; Gulhifalhu reclamation — Maldives; NGT bans on illegal mining — India.
